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iv WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL CONTENTS BASIC AERONAUTICAL KNOWLEDGE Chapter 1 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT................................................................................................ 1 Aerodynamics Terminology .........................................................................................................................1 Aerofoil......................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Span. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Chord........................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Camber........................................................................................................................................................................ 1 Thickness..................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Relative airflow. ........................................................................................................................................................... 1 Angle of attack............................................................................................................................................................. 1 Total reaction force. ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 Lift................................................................................................................................................................................ 1 Drag............................................................................................................................................................................. 1 Design Features/Controls..............................................................................................................................1 Dihedral. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Air density.................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Angle of incidence. ...................................................................................................................................................... 3 Velocity. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Factors Affecting Drag...................................................................................................................................5 Shape. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Airspeed....................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Flap Settings................................................................................................................................................................ 5 Maximum angle of attack for lift generation................................................................................................................. 9 Stability and Control......................................................................................................................................9 Longitudinal stability. ................................................................................................................................................... 9 Changes in centre of gravity position........................................................................................................................... 9 Changes in the centre of pressure..............................................................................................................................11 Changes in thrust........................................................................................................................................................11 Tail down force............................................................................................................................................................11 Lateral Stability............................................................................................................................................. 11 High wing versus low wing..........................................................................................................................................11 Dihedral versus anhedral............................................................................................................................................11 Sweepback.................................................................................................................................................................11 Directional Stability.....................................................................................................................................................11 Changes in centre of gravity.......................................................................................................................................11 Static and Dynamic Stability.......................................................................................................................13 Fixed trim tabs........................................................................................................................................................... 13 Cockpit trim controls.................................................................................................................................................. 13
v WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL CONTENTS Balance tabs.............................................................................................................................................................. 13 Mass balance............................................................................................................................................................. 13 Aileron Configurations. ...............................................................................................................................15 Differential.................................................................................................................................................................. 15 Frise........................................................................................................................................................................... 15 Flaperon..................................................................................................................................................................... 15 Manoeuvring.................................................................................................................................................15 Forces acting on an aircraft....................................................................................................................................... 15 Lift.............................................................................................................................................................................. 15 The forces in a stabilised climb..................................................................................................................17 Lift.............................................................................................................................................................................. 17 Thrust ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17 Drag .......................................................................................................................................................................... 17 The forces in a stabilised descent..............................................................................................................17 Lift.............................................................................................................................................................................. 17 Weight........................................................................................................................................................................ 17 Thrust ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17 Drag .......................................................................................................................................................................... 17 Centripetal force/G loading........................................................................................................................................ 17 Factors affecting climb performance.........................................................................................................19 Rate of climb.............................................................................................................................................................. 19 Weight........................................................................................................................................................................ 19 Power......................................................................................................................................................................... 21 Aircraft Configuration................................................................................................................................................. 21 Bank angle................................................................................................................................................................. 21 Density altitude.......................................................................................................................................................... 21 Aerodynamic Efficiency. ............................................................................................................................................ 21 Temperature............................................................................................................................................................... 21 Factors affecting descent............................................................................................................................23 Rate of descent.......................................................................................................................................................... 23 Angle of descent........................................................................................................................................................ 23 Turning..........................................................................................................................................................23 Wing Loading............................................................................................................................................................. 23 Load Factor................................................................................................................................................................ 25 Effects of bank angle...................................................................................................................................25 Stall airspeed............................................................................................................................................................. 25 Airframe..................................................................................................................................................................... 25 Limitations on steep turns. .........................................................................................................................25 Stalling, Spinning And Spiral Dives............................................................................................................25 Sloppy controls.......................................................................................................................................................... 27
vi WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL CONTENTS Stall warning device................................................................................................................................................... 27 Stick or control column position ................................................................................................................................ 27 Stall buffet.................................................................................................................................................................. 27 Stall recovery procedure............................................................................................................................................ 27 The factors which will result in stall speed changes.................................................................................................. 27 Flaps.......................................................................................................................................................................... 28 Power......................................................................................................................................................................... 28 Weight........................................................................................................................................................................ 28 Wing shear, gusts and thermals. ............................................................................................................................... 28 Ice and frost............................................................................................................................................................... 29 Rolling G loading. ...................................................................................................................................................... 29 Windrop Stall and Spin recovery. .............................................................................................................................. 29 Spin recovery technique............................................................................................................................................ 31 Taxi, Take-Off, And Landing........................................................................................................................31 Nose wheel aircraft.................................................................................................................................................... 31 Tail wheel aircraft....................................................................................................................................................... 31 Propeller torque......................................................................................................................................................... 31 Slipstream effect........................................................................................................................................................ 33 Gyroscopic effect....................................................................................................................................................... 33 Ground effect............................................................................................................................................................. 33 Wheelbarrowing......................................................................................................................................................... 33 Prevent or recover from wheelbarrowing................................................................................................................... 33 Pilot induced oscillations............................................................................................................................................ 33 Overcontrol................................................................................................................................................................ 33 Control Sensitivity...................................................................................................................................................... 35 Inexperience or Lack of Training................................................................................................................................ 35 Prevent or recover from pilot induced oscillation....................................................................................................... 35 Takeoff and landing into wind. ................................................................................................................................... 35 Using flap during the landing phase. ......................................................................................................................... 35 Attitude during descent path...................................................................................................................................... 35 The approach path angle........................................................................................................................................... 35 The landing roll.......................................................................................................................................................... 35 Airspeed fluctuations. ................................................................................................................................................ 37 Rate of descent or climb changes. ............................................................................................................................ 37 Unstable approach or flight path................................................................................................................................ 37 Wake Turbulence..........................................................................................................................................37 Vortex flow................................................................................................................................................................. 37 Aircraft Weight. .......................................................................................................................................................... 37 Speed. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 37
CONTENTS vii WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL Wing Shape............................................................................................................................................................... 37 Cruise flight................................................................................................................................................................ 39 Takeoff. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 39 Landing...................................................................................................................................................................... 39 Avoiding vortices on takeoff....................................................................................................................................... 39 Avoid vortices on landing........................................................................................................................................... 39 Avoid vortices in flight................................................................................................................................................ 39 Rotor Downwash. ...................................................................................................................................................... 39 Chapter 2 Weight And Balance...................................................................................................... 41 Moments.................................................................................................................................................................... 41 Moment arms............................................................................................................................................................. 41 Datum........................................................................................................................................................................ 41 Basic empty weight (BEW)........................................................................................................................................ 41 Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW). ............................................................................................................................ 41 Landing weight........................................................................................................................................................... 41 Centre of gravity. ....................................................................................................................................................... 41 Types of loading systems. ......................................................................................................................................... 41 Categories of operation. ............................................................................................................................................ 43 CG changes effect aircraft stability............................................................................................................................ 43 Seat weight limitations............................................................................................................................................... 43 Usable/Unusable fuel loads....................................................................................................................................... 43 Weight and balance calculation..................................................................................................................43 Chapter 3 Aircraft Performance Considerations.......................................................................... 47 Performance knowledge..............................................................................................................................47 The effects of weight.................................................................................................................................................. 47 The effects of air density............................................................................................................................................ 47 Aircraft performance terminology..............................................................................................................47 Takeoff safety speed (T.O.S.S).................................................................................................................................. 47 Takeoff rejection point................................................................................................................................................ 49 Changes in performance - Weight and Altitude. .......................................................................................49 Glide range................................................................................................................................................................ 49 Takeoff distance ........................................................................................................................................................ 49 Landing distance ....................................................................................................................................................... 49 Glide range................................................................................................................................................................ 51 Maximum angle climb................................................................................................................................................ 51 Cruise climb............................................................................................................................................................... 51 The benefits of an into wind takeoff........................................................................................................................... 51 Crosswind takeoff technique...................................................................................................................................... 51
CONTENTS viii WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL Short field takeoff technique ..................................................................................................................................... 53 Soft field takeoff technique. ....................................................................................................................................... 53 Soft field..................................................................................................................................................................... 53 Rough field................................................................................................................................................................. 53 Density altitude.......................................................................................................................................................... 53 Runway slope............................................................................................................................................................ 53 Pre-takeoff checks..................................................................................................................................................... 55 Pre-takeoff safety brief............................................................................................................................................... 55 Into wind landing........................................................................................................................................................ 55 Cross wind landing. ................................................................................................................................................... 55 Aiming point............................................................................................................................................................... 55 Flare point.................................................................................................................................................................. 55 Crosswind approach techniques................................................................................................................................ 55 Crabbed Approach..................................................................................................................................................... 55 Wing down approach................................................................................................................................................. 57 Landing technique for nose wheel aircraft................................................................................................................. 57 Final Approach........................................................................................................................................................... 57 Flare........................................................................................................................................................................... 57 Hold off. ..................................................................................................................................................................... 57 Landing rollout........................................................................................................................................................... 57 Pilot induced oscillation (PIO).................................................................................................................................... 57 Circuit operation...........................................................................................................................................59 Speed. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 59 Circuit height.............................................................................................................................................................. 59 Turns on takeoff and landing. .................................................................................................................................... 59 Departing .................................................................................................................................................................. 59 Arriving ...................................................................................................................................................................... 59 The standard circuit pattern....................................................................................................................................... 59 Upwind leg ................................................................................................................................................................ 59 Crosswind leg ........................................................................................................................................................... 59 Downwind leg. ........................................................................................................................................................... 59 Base leg..................................................................................................................................................................... 59 Final leg .................................................................................................................................................................... 59 Radio call requirements............................................................................................................................................. 61 Pre-landing checks.................................................................................................................................................... 61 Circuit procedures...................................................................................................................................................... 61 Departing the circuit area........................................................................................................................................... 61 Joining on base leg.................................................................................................................................................... 61 Taxi after landing........................................................................................................................................................ 61
CONTENTS ix WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL Transiting flights......................................................................................................................................................... 61 The effect of wind on ground handling....................................................................................................................... 62 Control deflections in wind on ground........................................................................................................................ 62 Testing brakes............................................................................................................................................................ 62 Directional control for emergency braking................................................................................................................. 62 Chapter 4 Emergency Procedures. ............................................................................................... 63 Forced landings......................................................................................................................................................... 63 Pre-selection ............................................................................................................................................................. 63 Procedure.................................................................................................................................................................. 63 Engine failure on takeoff............................................................................................................................................ 63 Engine failure in the circuit......................................................................................................................................... 65 Procedure.................................................................................................................................................................. 65 Electrical failure. ........................................................................................................................................................ 65 Control failure or jammed controls............................................................................................................................. 66 Missed approach/go-around...................................................................................................................................... 66 Initiation. .................................................................................................................................................................... 66 Power, pitch and trim................................................................................................................................................. 66 Flaps.......................................................................................................................................................................... 66 Climb and Turn. ......................................................................................................................................................... 66 Communicate............................................................................................................................................................. 66 Maintain Awareness................................................................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 5 Aircraft General Knowledge. ........................................................................................ 69 Terminology..................................................................................................................................................69 Direction as a three figure group. .............................................................................................................................. 69 Direction as a two figure group.................................................................................................................................. 69 Direction relative to a clock code............................................................................................................................... 69 True (T) direction. ...................................................................................................................................................... 69 Distance units in navigation....................................................................................................................................... 69 Visibility...................................................................................................................................................................... 69 Time conversions....................................................................................................................................................... 71 LMT to UTC. .............................................................................................................................................................. 71 Converting UTC to Local Times................................................................................................................................. 71 Vertical measurement................................................................................................................................................ 71 Height, altitude and elevation. ................................................................................................................................... 71 Temperature............................................................................................................................................................... 73 Atmospheric pressure................................................................................................................................................ 73 Weight........................................................................................................................................................................ 73 Liquid volume............................................................................................................................................................. 73
CONTENTS x WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL Wind, runway direction and Crosswind...................................................................................................................... 73 The appropriate runway for takeoff or landing........................................................................................................... 73 The direction of any crosswind component. .............................................................................................................. 73 The angle of the crosswind component..................................................................................................................... 73 The velocity of the crosswind component.................................................................................................................. 73 Chapter 6 Power Plants And Systems. ......................................................................................... 75 Engine Components & Electrical Definitions............................................................................................75 Two-stroke engines.................................................................................................................................................... 75 Compression/Intake................................................................................................................................................... 75 Power/Exhaust........................................................................................................................................................... 75 Four-stroke engines................................................................................................................................................... 75 Intake......................................................................................................................................................................... 75 Exhaust...................................................................................................................................................................... 75 Electrical Systems. .................................................................................................................................................... 76 Battery. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 76 Alternator or Generator.............................................................................................................................................. 76 Voltage Regulator...................................................................................................................................................... 76 Bus Bar...................................................................................................................................................................... 76 Circuit Breakers/Fuses. ............................................................................................................................................. 76 Wiring......................................................................................................................................................................... 76 Electrical Loads. ........................................................................................................................................................ 76 Piston Rings............................................................................................................................................................... 77 Inlet and Exhaust Valves. .......................................................................................................................................... 77 Crankshaft. ................................................................................................................................................................ 77 Camshaft. .................................................................................................................................................................. 77 Spark Plugs. .............................................................................................................................................................. 77 Carburetor.................................................................................................................................................................. 77 Fuel Injection. ............................................................................................................................................................ 77 Throttle....................................................................................................................................................................... 77 Throttle Body. ............................................................................................................................................................ 77 Electronic Ignition (CDI)............................................................................................................................................. 77 Dual Ignition............................................................................................................................................................... 77 Regulator/Rectifier..................................................................................................................................................... 77 Battery. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 77 Battery Compartment Vent. ....................................................................................................................................... 77 Propeller. ................................................................................................................................................................... 77 Circuit Breakers......................................................................................................................................................... 78 Fuses......................................................................................................................................................................... 78
CONTENTS xi WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL Bus Bar...................................................................................................................................................................... 78 Oil Cooler................................................................................................................................................................... 78 Radiator..................................................................................................................................................................... 78 Fuel Tank Vents. ........................................................................................................................................................ 78 Engine monitoring...................................................................................................................................................... 78 Tachometer (Engine RPM). ....................................................................................................................................... 78 Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT)............................................................................................................................ 78 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT). ............................................................................................................................. 78 Voltmeter.................................................................................................................................................................... 78 Ammeter.................................................................................................................................................................... 78 Fuel Pressure. ........................................................................................................................................................... 79 Oil Temperature. ........................................................................................................................................................ 79 Oil Pressure............................................................................................................................................................... 79 Factors affecting power output of an engine. ...........................................................................................79 Throttle Position......................................................................................................................................................... 79 Revolutions Per Minute (RPM).................................................................................................................................. 79 Air Density. ................................................................................................................................................................ 79 Fuel And Oils. ...............................................................................................................................................79 Safety when refuelling. .............................................................................................................................................. 79 Static Electricity. ........................................................................................................................................................ 79 Fire Hazards.............................................................................................................................................................. 80 Proper Equipment Usage. ......................................................................................................................................... 80 Emergency Preparedness......................................................................................................................................... 80 Fuel drain check. ....................................................................................................................................................... 80 Sources of fuel contamination. .................................................................................................................................. 80 Filling tanks prior to overnight parking....................................................................................................................... 80 Engine lubrication...................................................................................................................................................... 80 Reducing Friction....................................................................................................................................................... 80 Heat Dissipation......................................................................................................................................................... 80 Sealing....................................................................................................................................................................... 81 Corrosion Protection.................................................................................................................................................. 81 Cleaning..................................................................................................................................................................... 81 Fuel and oil terminology..............................................................................................................................81 Viscosity..................................................................................................................................................................... 81 Oil sump..................................................................................................................................................................... 81 Multi-grade oil............................................................................................................................................................ 81 Octane rating............................................................................................................................................................. 81 Aviation fuel types. ......................................................................................................................................81 Avgas......................................................................................................................................................................... 81
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